Journal of Intensive Care Medicine

 

Advanced Search

Journal Navigation

Journal Home

Subscriptions

Archive

Contact Us

Table of Contents

Register here to gain access to SAGE's 500+ Journals Online

Click here to sign up for SAGE Journal Email Alerts today!

Sign In to gain access to subscriptions and/or personal tools.
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Prodhan, P.
Right arrow Articles by Noviski, N.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Prodhan, P.
Right arrow Articles by Noviski, N.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?
Journal of Intensive Care Medicine, Vol. 19, No. 3, 140-153 (2004)
DOI: 10.1177/0885066604263859

Pediatric Acute Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure: Management of Oxygenation

Parthak Prodhan, MD

Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, MassGeneral Hospital for Children, Boston, Massachusetts

Natan Noviski, MD

Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, MassGeneral Hospital for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, nnoviski{at}partners.org

Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure (AHRF) is one of the hallmarks of acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which are caused by an inflammatory process initiated by any of a number of potential systemic and/or pulmonary insults that result in heterogeneous disruption of the capillary-pithelial interface. In these critically sick patients, optimizing the management of oxygenation is crucial. Physicians managing pediatric patients with ALI or ARDS are faced with a complex array of options influencing oxygenation. Certain treatment strategies can influence clinical outcomes, such as a lung protective ventilation strategy that specifies a low tidal volume (6 mL/kg) and a plateau pressure limit (30 cm H2O). Other strategies such as different levels of positive end expiratory pressure, altered inspiration to expiration time ratios, recruitment maneuvers, prone positioning, and extraneous gases or drugs may also affect clinical outcomes. This article reviews state-of-the-art strategies on the management of oxygenation in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure in children.

Key Words: pediatrics • acute respiratory distress syndrome • acute lung injury • oxygenation • acute hypoxemic respiratory failure • ventilator-induced lung injury

References

  • 1. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301-1308.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 2. Mao C, Wong DT, Slutsky AS, et al. A quantitative assessment of how Canadian intensivists believe they utilize oxygen in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2806-2811.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 3. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, et al. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet. 1967;2:319-323.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 4. Murray JF, Matthay MA, Luce JM, et al. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138:720-723.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 5. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS: definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:818-824.[Abstract]
  • 6. Luhr OR, Antonsen K, Karlsson M, et al. Incidence and mortality after acute respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome in Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. The ARF Study Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:1849-1861.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 7. Hudson LD, Milberg JA, Anardi D, et al. Clinical risks for development of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:293-301.[Abstract]
  • 8. Milberg JA, Davis DR, Steinberg KP, et al. Improved survival of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): 1983-1993. JAMA. 1995;273:306-309.[Abstract]
  • 9. Kollef MH, Schuster DP. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:27-37.[Free Full Text]
  • 10. Montgomery AB, Stager MA, Carrico CJ, et al. Causes of mortality in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985;132:485-489.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 11. Davis SL, Furman DP, Costarino AT Jr. Adult respiratory distress syndrome in children: associated disease, clinical course, and predictors of death. J Pediatr. 1993;123:35-45.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 12. Timmons OD, Dean JM, Vernon DD. Mortality rates and prognostic variables in children with adult respiratory distress syndrome. J Pediatr. 1991;119:896-899.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 13. Beaufils F, Mercier JC, Farnoux C, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in children. Curr Opin Pediatr. 1997;9:207-212.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 14. Redding GJ. Current concepts in adult respiratory distress syndrome in children. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2001;13:261-266.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 15. Randolph AG, Meert KL, O’Neil ME, et al. The feasibility of conducting clinical trials in infants and children with acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:1334-1340.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 16. Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, et al. Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:347-354.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 17. Ranieri VM, Suter PM, Tortorella C, et al. Effect of mechanical ventilation on inflammatory mediators in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1999;282:54-61.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 18. Hickling KG, Walsh J, Henderson S, et al. Low mortality rate in adult respiratory distress syndrome using low-volume, pressure-limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia: a prospective study. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1568-1578.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 19. Bojko T, Notterman DA, Greenwald BM, et al. Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure in children following bone marrow transplantation: an outcome and pathologic study. Crit Care Med. 1995;23:755-759.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 20. Keenan HT, Bratton SL, Martin LD, et al. Outcome of children who require mechanical ventilatory support after bone marrow transplantation. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:830-835.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 21. Dreyfuss D, Saumon G. Ventilator-induced lung injury: lessons from experimental studies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:294-323.
  • 22. Muscedere JG, Mullen JB, Gan K, et al. Tidal ventilation at low airway pressures can augment lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:1327-1334.[Abstract]
  • 23. Dreyfuss D, Basset G, Soler P, et al. Intermittent positive-pressure hyperventilation with high inflation pressures produces pulmonary microvascular injury in rats. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985;132:880-884.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 24. Tremblay L, Valenza F, Ribeiro SP, et al. Injurious ventilatory strategies increase cytokines and c-fos m-RNA expression in an isolated rat lung model. J Clin Invest. 1997;99:944-952.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 25. Tremblay LN, Slutsky AS. Ventilator-induced injury: from barotrauma to biotrauma. Proc Assoc Am Physicians. 1998;110:482-488.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 26. Webb HH, Tierney DF. Experimental pulmonary edema due to intermittent positive pressure ventilation with high inflation pressures: protection by positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1974;110:556-565.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 27. Dreyfuss D, Saumon G. Should the lung be rested or recruited? The Charybdis and Scylla of ventilator management. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:1066-1067.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 28. Gattinoni L, Pelosi P, Crotti S, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional distribution of tidal volume and recruitment in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:1807-1814.[Abstract]
  • 29. Matamis D, Lemaire F, Harf A, et al. Total respiratory pressure-volume curves in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest. 1984;86:58-66.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 30. Slutsky AS. Barotrauma and alveolar recruitment. Intensive Care Med. 1993;19:369-371.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 31. Jonson B, Richard JC, Straus C, et al. Pressure-volume curves and compliance in acute lung injury: evidence of recruitment above the lower inflection point. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:1172-1178.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 32. Servillo G, Svantesson C, Beydon L, et al. Pressure-volume curves in acute respiratory failure: automated low flow inflation versus occlusion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:1629-1636.[Abstract]
  • 33. Lu Q, Vieira SR, Richecoeur J, et al. A simple automated method for measuring pressure-volume curves during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:275-282.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 34. Vieira SR, Puybasset L, Richecoeur J, et al. A lung computed tomographic assessment of positive end-expiratory pressure-induced lung overdistension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1571-1577.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 35. Puybasset L, Cluzel P, Chao N, et al. A computed tomography scan assessment of regional lung volume in acute lung injury. The CT Scan ARDS Study Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1644-1655.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 36. Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, et al. Beneficial effects of the "open lung approach" with low distending pressures in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a prospective randomized study on mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:1835-1846.[Abstract]
  • 37. Ranieri VM, Eissa NT, Corbeil C, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on alveolar recruitment and gas exchange in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;144:544-551.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 38. Brochard L. Respiratory pressure-volume curves. In: Tobin MJ, Tobin M, eds. Principles and Practice of Intensive Care Monitoring. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1997:597-616.
  • 39. Broccard AF, Hotchkiss JR, Kuwayama N, et al. Consequences of vascular flow on lung injury induced by mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1935-1942.
  • 40. Chiumello D, Pristine G, Slutsky AS. Mechanical ventilation affects local and systemic cytokines in an animal model of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:109-116.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 41. Ranieri VM, Giunta F, Suter PM, et al. Mechanical ventilation as a mediator of multisystem organ failure in acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA. 2000;284:43-44.[Free Full Text]
  • 42. Rimensberger PC, Cox PN, Frndova H, et al. The open lung during small tidal volume ventilation: concepts of recruitment and "optimal" positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1946-1952.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 43. Brochard L, Roudot-Thoraval F, Roupie E, et al. Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Multicenter Trail Group on Tidal Volume Reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1831-1838.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 44. Stewart TE, Meade MO, Cook DJ, et al. Evaluation of a ventilation strategy to prevent barotrauma in patients at high risk for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Pressure-and Volume-Limited Ventilation Strategy Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:355-361.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 45. Brower RG, Shanholtz CB, Fessler HE, et al. Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial comparing traditional versus reduced tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1492-1498.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 46. Froese AB, Bryan AC. High frequency ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;135:1363-1374.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 47. Froese AB. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation for adult respiratory distress syndrome: let’s get it right this time! Crit Care Med. 1997;25:906-908.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 48. Herridge MS, Slutsky AS, Colditz GA. Has high-frequency ventilation been inappropriately discarded in adult acute respiratory distress syndrome? Crit Care Med. 1998;26:2073-2077.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 49. McCulloch PR, Forkert PG, Froese AB. Lung volume maintenance prevents lung injury during high frequency oscillatory ventilation in surfactant-deficient rabbits. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;137:1185-1192.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 50. Froese AB, McCulloch PR, Sugiura M, et al. Optimizing alveolar expansion prolongs the effectiveness of exogenous surfactant therapy in the adult rabbit. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148:569-577.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 51. Imai Y, Kawano T, Miyasaka K, et al. Inflammatory chemical mediators during conventional ventilation and during high frequency oscillatory ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:1550-1554.[Abstract]
  • 52. Matsuoka T, Kawano T, Miyasaka K. Role of high-frequency ventilation in surfactant-depleted lung injury as measured by granulocytes. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76:539-544.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 53. Clark RH, Gerstmann DR, Null DM Jr, et al. Prospective randomized comparison of high-frequency oscillatory and conventional ventilation in respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatrics. 1992;89:5-12.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 54. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation compared with conventional mechanical ventilation in the treatment of respiratory failure in preterm infants. The HIFI Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:88-93.[Abstract]
  • 55. Randomized study of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in infants with severe respiratory distress syndrome. HiFO Study Group. J Pediatr. 1993;122:609-619.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 56. Gerstmann DR, Minton SD, Stoddard RA, et al. The Provo multicenter early high-frequency oscillatory ventilation trial: improved pulmonary and clinical outcome in respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatrics. 1996;98:1044-1057.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 57. Rettwitz-Volk W,Veldman A, Roth B, et al. A prospective, randomized, multicenter trial of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation compared with conventional ventilation in preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome receiving surfactant. J Pediatr. 1998;132:249-254.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 58. Carter JM, Gerstmann DR, Clark RH, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for the treatment of acute neonatal respiratory failure. Pediatrics. 1990;85:159-164.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 59. Clark RH, Yoder BA, Sell MS. Prospective, randomized comparison of high-frequency oscillation and conventional ventilation in candidates for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr. 1994;124:447-454.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 60. Arnold JH, Hanson JH, Toro-Figuero LO, et al. Prospective, randomized comparison of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation and conventional mechanical ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1530-1539.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 61. Rosenberg RB, Broner CW, Peters KJ, et al. High-frequency ventilation for acute pediatric respiratory failure. Chest. 1993;104:1216-1221.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 62. Dobyns EL, Anas NG, Fortenberry JD, et al. Interactive effects of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation and inhaled nitric oxide in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure in pediatrics. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:2425-2429.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 63. Fedora M, Klimovic M, Seda M, et al. Effect of early intervention of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation on the outcome in pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome [abstract]. Bratisl Lek Listy. 2000;101:8-13.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 64. Arnold JH, Anas NG, Luckett P, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure: a multicenter experience. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:3913-3919.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 65. Duval EL, Markhorst DG, Gemke RJ, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric patients. Neth J Med. 2000;56:177-185.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 66. Arnold JH, Truog RD, Thompson JE, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure. Crit Care Med. 1993;21:272-278.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 67. Mehta S, Lapinsky SE, Hallett DC, et al. Prospective trial of high-frequency oscillation in adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1360-1369.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 68. Derdak S. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome in adult patients. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:S317-S323.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 69. Derdak S, Mehta S, Stewart TE, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: a randomized, controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:801-808.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 70. Fort P, Farmer C, Westerman J, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation for adult respiratory distress syndrome—a pilot study. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:937-947.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 71. Henderson-Smart DJ, Bhuta T, Cools F, et al. Elective high frequency oscillatory ventilation versus conventional ventilation for acute pulmonary dysfunction in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003: CD000104.
  • 72. Marcy TW, Marini JJ. Inverse ratio ventilation in ARDS: rationale and implementation. Chest. 1991;100:494-504.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 73. Mercat A, Titiriga M, Anguel N, et al. Inverse ratio ventilation (I/E = 2/1) in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a six-hour controlled study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:1637-1642.[Abstract]
  • 74. Armstrong BW Jr, MacIntyre NR. Pressure-controlled, inverse ratio ventilation that avoids air trapping in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 1995;23:279-285.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 75. Mercat A, Graini L, Teboul JL, et al. Cardiorespiratory effects of pressure-controlled ventilation with and without inverse ratio in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest. 1993;104:871-875.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 76. Abel SJ, Finney SJ, Brett SJ, et al. Reduced mortality in association with the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thorax. 1998;53:292-294.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 77. Papadakos PJ, Halloran W, Hessney JI, et al. The use of pressure-controlled inverse ratio ventilation in the surgical intensive care unit. J Trauma. 1991;31:1211-1214; discussion, 1214-1215.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 78. Lachmann B. Open up the lung and keep the lung open. Intensive Care Med. 1992;18:319-321.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 79. Marini JJ. Recruitment maneuvers to achieve an "open lung"—whether and how? Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1647-1648.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 80. Gattinoni L, Caironi P, Pelosi P, et al. What has computed tomography taught us about the acute respiratory distress syndrome? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:1701-1711.[Free Full Text]
  • 81 Hubmayr RD. Perspective on lung injury and recruitment: a skeptical look at the opening and collapse story. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165:1647-1653.[Free Full Text]
  • 82. Rimensberger PC, Pristine G, Mullen BM, et al. Lung recruitment during small tidal volume ventilation allows minimal positive end-expiratory pressure without augmenting lung injury. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1940-1945.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 83. Crotti S, Mascheroni D, Caironi P, et al. Recruitment and derecruitment during acute respiratory failure: a clinical study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:131-140.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 84. Grasso S, Mascia L, Del Turco M, et al. Effects of recruiting maneuvers in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome ventilated with protective ventilatory strategy. Anesthesiology. 2002;96:795-802.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 85. Pelosi P, Goldner M, McKibben A, et al. Recruitment and derecruitment during acute respiratory failure: an experimental study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:122-130.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 86. Patroniti N, Foti G, Cortinovis B, et al. Sigh improves gas exchange and lung volume in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome undergoing pressure support ventilation. Anesthesiology. 2002;96:788-794.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 87. Lim CM, Jung H, Koh Y, et al. Effect of alveolar recruitment maneuver in early acute respiratory distress syndrome according to antiderecruitment strategy, etiological category of diffuse lung injury, and body position of the patient. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:411-418.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 88. Artigas A, Bernard GR, Carlet J, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS, part 2: ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1332-1347.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 89. Puybasset L, Gusman P, Muller JC, et al. Regional distribution of gas and tissue in acute respiratory distress syndrome: III. Consequences for the effects of positive end-expiratory pressure. CT Scan ARDS Study Group. Adult respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:1215-1227.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 90. Richard JC, Maggiore SM, Jonson B, et al. Influence of tidal volume on alveolar recruitment: respective role of PEEP and a recruitment maneuver. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:1609-1613.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 91. Halter JM, Steinberg JM, Schiller HJ, et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure after a recruitment maneuver prevents both alveolar collapse and recruitment/derecruitment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:1620-1626.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 92. Johannigman JA, Miller SL, Davis BR, et al. Influence of low tidal volumes on gas exchange in acute respiratory distress syndrome and the role of recruitment maneuvers. J Trauma. 2003;54:320-325.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 93. Tusman G, Bohm SH, Tempra A, et al. Effects of recruitment maneuver on atelectasis in anesthetized children. Anesthesiology. 2003;98:14-22.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 94. Lapinsky SE, Aubin M, Mehta S, et al. Safety and efficacy of a sustained inflation for alveolar recruitment in adults with respiratory failure. Intensive Care Med. 1999;25:1297-1301.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 95. Hobbs AJ. Nitric Oxide and the Lung. New York. NY: Marcel Dekker; 1997.Zapol WM, Bloch KD, ed. Lung Biology in Health and Disease; vol. 98.
  • 96. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Wood KS, et al. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84:9265-9269.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 97. Frostell C, Fratacci MD, Wain JC, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide: a selective pulmonary vasodilator reversing hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Circulation. 1991;83:2038-2047.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 98. Steudel W, Hurford WE, Zapol WM. Inhaled nitric oxide: basic biology and clinical applications. Anesthesiology. 1999;91:1090-1121.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 99. Putensen C, Rasanen J, Downs JB. Effect of endogenous and inhaled nitric oxide on the ventilation-perfusion relationships in oleic-acid lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:330-336.[Abstract]
  • 100. Ogura H, Saitoh D, Johnson AA, et al. The effect of inhaled nitric oxide on pulmonary ventilation-perfusion matching following smoke inhalation injury. J Trauma. 1994;37:893-898.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 101. Cuthbertson BH, Galley HF, Webster NR. Effect of exogenous nitric oxide and superoxide on interleukin-8 from human polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Br J Anaesth. 1997;78:714-717.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 102. Sheridan BC, McIntyre RC Jr, Meldrum DR, et al. L-arginine attenuates endothelial dysfunction in endotoxin-induced lung injury. Surgery. 1999;125:33-40.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 103. Benzing A, Brautigam P, Geiger K, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide reduces pulmonary transvascular albumin flux in patients with acute lung injury. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:1153-1161.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 104. Kurose I, Wolf R, Grisham MB, et al. Modulation of ischemia/reperfusion-induced microvascular dysfunction by nitric oxide. Circ Res. 1994;74:376-382.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 105. Szabo C. The pathophysiological role of peroxynitrite in shock, inflammation, and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Shock. 1996;6:79-88.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 106. Casella L, Monzani E, Roncone R, et al. Formation of reactive nitrogen species at biologic heme centers: a potential mechanism of nitric oxide-dependent toxicity. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110(suppl 5):709-711.
  • 107. Abman SH, Griebel JL, Parker DK, et al. Acute effects of inhaled nitric oxide in children with severe hypoxemic respiratory failure. J Pediatr. 1994;124:881-888.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 108. Michael JR, Barton RG, Saffle JR, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide versus conventional therapy: effect on oxygenation in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1372-1380.
  • 109. Dellinger RP, Zimmerman JL, Taylor RW, et al. Effects of inhaled nitric oxide in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: results of a randomized phase II trial. Inhaled Nitric Oxide in ARDS Study Group. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:15-23.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 110. Troncy E, Collet JP, Shapiro S, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a pilot randomized controlled study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1483-1488.
  • 111. Lundin S, Mang H, Smithies M, et al. Inhalation of nitric oxide in acute lung injury: results of a European multicentre study. The European Study Group of Inhaled Nitric Oxide. Intensive Care Med. 1999;25:911-919.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 112. Roberts JD Jr, Fineman JR, Morin FC III, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide and persistent pulmonary hypertension of the new-born. The Inhaled Nitric Oxide Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:605-610.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 113. Inhaled nitric oxide in full-term and nearly full-term infants with hypoxic respiratory failure. The Neonatal Inhaled Nitric Oxide Study Group [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 1997;337:434].[Free Full Text]N Engl J Med. 1997;336:597-604.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 114. Baldauf M, Silver P, Sagy M. Evaluating the validity of responsiveness to inhaled nitric oxide in pediatric patients with ARDS: an analytic tool. Chest. 2001;119:1166-1172.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 115. Groupe d’Etude sur le NO inhale au cours de l’ARDS. Inhaled NO in ARDS. Presentation of a double blind randomized multicentric study. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 1996;153:A590.
  • 116. Dobyns EL, Cornfield DN, Anas NG, et al. Multicenter randomized controlled trial of the effects of inhaled nitric oxide therapy on gas exchange in children with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. J Pediatr. 1999;134:406-412.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 117.Sokol J, Jacobs SE, Bohn D. Inhaled nitric oxide for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003: CD002787.
  • 118. Bryan AC. Conference on the scientific basis of respiratory therapy: pulmonary physiotherapy in the pediatric age group. Comments of a devil’s advocate. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1974;110:143-144.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 119. Chatte G, Sab JM, Dubois JM, et al. Prone position in mechanically ventilated patients with severe acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:473-478.[Abstract]
  • 120. Pelosi P, Tubiolo D, Mascheroni D, et al. Effects of the prone position on respiratory mechanics and gas exchange during acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:387-393.
  • 121. Mure M, Martling CR, Lindahl SG. Dramatic effect on oxygenation in patients with severe acute lung insufficiency treated in the prone position. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:1539-1544.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 122. Gattinoni L, Tognoni G, Pesenti A, et al. Effect of prone positioning on the survival of patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:568-573.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 123. Curley MA, Thompson JE, Arnold JH. The effects of early and repeated prone positioning in pediatric patients with acute lung injury. Chest. 2000;118:156-163.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 124. Curley MA. Prone positioning of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review. Am J Crit Care. 1999;8:397-405.
  • 125. Kornecki A, Frndova H, Coates AL, et al. A randomized trial of prolonged prone positioning in children with acute respiratory failure. Chest. 2001;119:211-218.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 126. Murdoch IA, Storman MO. Improved arterial oxygenation in children with the adult respiratory distress syndrome: the prone position. Acta Paediatr. 1994;83:1043-1046.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 127. Relvas MS, Silver PC, Sagy M. Prone positioning of pediatric patients with ARDS results in improvement in oxygenation if maintained > 12 h daily. Chest. 2003;124:269-274.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 128. Casado-Flores J, Martinez de Azagra A, Ruiz-Lopez MJ, et al. Pediatric ARDS: effect of supine-prone postural changes on oxygenation. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28:1792-1796.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 129. Lamm WJ, Graham MM, Albert RK. Mechanism by which the prone position improves oxygenation in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:184-193.[Abstract]
  • 130. Haefner SM, Bratton SL, Annich GM, et al. Complications of intermittent prone positioning in pediatric patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for respiratory failure. Chest. 2003;123:1589-1594.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 131. Thompson BT. Glucocorticoids and acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:S253-S257.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 132. Bernard GR, Luce JM, Sprung CL, et al. High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:1565-1570.[Abstract]
  • 133. Bone RC, Fisher CJ Jr, Clemmer TP, et al. A controlled clinical trial of high-dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:653-658.[Abstract]
  • 134. Meduri GU, Chinn AJ, Leeper KV, et al. Corticosteroid rescue treatment of progressive fibroproliferation in late ARDS: patterns of response and predictors of outcome. Chest. 1994;105:1516-1527.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 135. Martinot A, Fourier C, Cremer R, et al. Short-course, high-dose corticosteroid treatment in six children with late ARDS. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1997;23:314-316.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 136. Goh AY, Sekaran D, Roziah M. Corticosteroid rescue in late paediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome. Respirology. 1999;4:295-297.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 137. Gagnon S, Boota AM, Fischl MA, et al. Corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for severe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1444-1450.[Abstract]
  • 138. Allen JN, Pacht ER, Gadek JE, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia as a reversible cause of noninfectious respiratory failure. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:569-574.[Abstract]
  • 139. Epler GR, Colby TV, McLoud TC, et al. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:152-158.[Abstract]
  • 140. Luce JM, Montgomery AB, Marks JD, et al. Ineffectiveness of high-dose methylprednisolone in preventing parenchymal lung injury and improving mortality in patients with septic shock. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138:62-68.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 141. Weigelt JA, Norcross JF, Borman KR, et al. Early steroid therapy for respiratory failure. Arch Surg. 1985;120:536-540.[Abstract]
  • 142. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA. 2002;288:862-871.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 143. Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Levy B, et al. Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:645-650.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 144. Biffl WL, Moore FA, Moore EE, et al. Are corticosteroids salvage therapy for refractory acute respiratory distress syndrome? Am J Surg. 1995;170:591-595; discussion, 595-596.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 145. Meduri GU. The role of the host defense response in the progression and outcome of ARDS: pathophysiological correlations and response to glucocorticoid treatment. Eur Respir J. 1996;9:2650-2670.[Abstract]
  • 146. Meduri GU, Belenchia JM, Estes RJ, et al. Fibroproliferative phase of ARDS: clinical findings and effects of corticosteroids. Chest. 1991;100:943-952.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 147. Kehrer JP, Klein-Szanto AJ, Sorensen EM, et al. Enhanced acute lung damage following corticosteroid treatment. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;130:256-261.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 148. Veldhuizen R, Nag K, Orgeig S, et al. The role of lipids in pulmonary surfactant. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1998;1408:90-108.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 149. Weaver TE, Conkright JJ. Function of surfactant proteins B and C. Ann Rev Physiol. 2001;63:555-578.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 150. Wright JR, Dobbs LG. Regulation of pulmonary surfactant secretion and clearance. Ann Rev Physiol. 1991;53:395-414.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 151. McCormack FX, Whitsett JA. The pulmonary collectins, SP-A and SP-D, orchestrate innate immunity in the lung. J Clin Invest. 2002;109:707-712.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 152. LeVine AM, Whitsett JA, Hartshorn KL, et al. Surfactant protein D enhances clearance of influenza A virus from the lung in vivo. J Immunol. 2001;167:5868-5873.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 153. Lewis JF, Jobe AH. Surfactant and the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147:218-233.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 154. Lewis JF, Veldhuizen R, Possmayer F, et al. Altered alveolar surfactant is an early marker of acute lung injury in septic adult sheep. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:123-130.[Abstract]
  • 155. Hallman M, Spragg R, Harrell JH, et al. Evidence of lung surfactant abnormality in respiratory failure: study of bronchoalveolar lavage phospholipids, surface activity, phospholipase activity, and plasma myoinositol. J Clin Invest.1982;70:673-683.
  • 156. Spragg RG, Lewis JF, Wurst W, et al. Treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome with recombinant surfactant protein C surfactant. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:1562-1566.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 157. Willson DF, Zaritsky A, Bauman LA, et al. Instillation of calf lung surfactant extract (calfactant) is beneficial in pediatric acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Members of the Mid-Atlantic Pediatric Critical Care Network. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:188-195.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 158. Hermon MM, Golej J, Burda G, et al. Surfactant therapy in infants and children: three years experience in a pediatric intensive care unit. Shock. 2002;17:247-251.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 159. Anzueto A, Baughman RP, Guntupalli KK, et al. Aerosolized surfactant in adults with sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. Exosurf Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Sepsis Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1417-1421.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 160. Gregory TJ, Steinberg KP, Spragg R, et al. Bovine surfactant therapy for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:1309-1315.[Abstract]
  • 161. Spragg R, Harris KW, Lewis J, et al. Surfactant treatment of patients with ARDS may reduce acute lung inflammation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:A23.
  • 162. Lewis JF, Dhillon JS, Singh RN, et al. Exogenous surfactant therapy for pediatric patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Can Respir J. 1997;4:21-26.
  • 163. Wiswell TE, Smith RM, Katz LB, et al. Bronchopulmonary segmental lavage with Surfaxin (KL(4)-surfactant) for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1188-1195.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 164. Hill JD, O’Brien TG, Murray JJ, et al. Prolonged extracorporeal oxygenation for acute post-traumatic respiratory failure (shock-lung syndrome): use of the Bramson membrane lung. N Engl J Med.1972;286:629-634.
  • 165. Bartlett RH, Gazzaniga AB, Jefferies MR, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) cardiopulmonary support in infancy. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs. 1976;22:80-93.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 166. Zapol WM, Snider MT, Hill JD, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe acute respiratory failure: a randomized prospective study. JAMA. 1979;242:2193-2196.[Abstract]
  • 167. Bartlett RH, Andrews AF, Toomasian JM, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for newborn respiratory failure: forty-five cases. Surgery. 1982;92:425-433.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 168. O’Rourke PP, Crone RK, Vacanti JP, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and conventional medical therapy in neonates with persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn: a prospective randomized study. Pediatrics. 1989;84:957-963.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 169. UK collaborative randomised trial of neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. UK Collaborative ECMO Trial Group. Lancet. 1996;348:75-82.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 170. van Heijst AF, van der Staak FH, Geven WB, et al. Resultaten van extracorporele membraanoxygenatie bij 100 pasgeborenen met cardiorespiratoire insufficientie [abstract]. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde. 1999;143:356-360.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 171. Morton A, Dalton H, Kochanek P, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pediatric respiratory failure: five-year experience at the University of Pittsburgh. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1659-1667.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 172. Green TP, Timmons OD, Fackler JC, et al. The impact of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation on survival in pediatric patients with acute respiratory failure. Pediatric Critical Care Study Group. Crit Care Med. 1996;24:323-329.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 173. Goretsky MJ, Greenhalgh DG, Warden GD, et al. The use of extracorporeal life support in pediatric burn patients with respiratory failure. J Pediatr Surg. 1995;30:620-623.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 174. Meyer DM, Jessen ME. Results of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children with sepsis. The Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. Ann Thorac Surg. 1997;63:756-761.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • 175. Lewandowski K, Rossaint R, Pappert D, et al. High survival rate in 122 ARDS patients managed according to a clinical algorithm including extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Intensive Care Med. 1997;23:819-835.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 176. Linden V, Palmer K, Reinhard J, et al. High survival in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome treated by extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, minimal sedation, and pressure supported ventilation. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:1630-1637.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • 177. Tracy TF, Stolar CJH. The Registry of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. Available at: http://wwwmedu-michedu/ecmo/ELSO_reghtml. Accessed February 2000.

Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati    What's this?



This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Prodhan, P.
Right arrow Articles by Noviski, N.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Prodhan, P.
Right arrow Articles by Noviski, N.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?